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Cabin & Fire Safety Reports
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| Title: |
TOXICITY ASSESSMENT OF COMBUSTION GASES AND DEVELOPMENT OF
A SURVIVAL MODEL |
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Summary: |
This report presents an extensive
review of the literature on the toxic and thermal hazards
relating to human survival in aircraft cabin fires.
Studies by various authors of exposures to single and
mixed gases on humans, primates, rats and mice are
presented for different activity levels and a wide range
of concentrations and temperatures. Regression equations
giving the best fit were derived from these studies. The
regression equation which was judged to best model the
human escaping from an aircraft cabin fire was selected
for each gas and utilized in the survival model. The
effect of carbon dioxide increasing the uptake of other
gases was included in the model. |
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| Title: |
Thermal Decomposition of Cyanate Ester Resins |
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Summary: |
Polycyanurate networks were prepared
by thermal polymerization of cyanate ester monomers
containing two or more cyanate ester (–O-C!N)
functional groups. The thermal decomposition chemistry of
nine different polycyanurates was studied by
thermogravimetry and infrared analysis of solid films and
analysis of the gases evolved during pyrolysis using
infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry. It was found that the thermal stability of
the polycyanurates was essentially independent of monomer
chemical structure with the major mass loss occurring at
about 450°C for all materials. Analysis of the
solid-state and gas phase thermal degradation chemistry
indicates a thermal decomposition mechanism for
polycyanurates which begins with hydrocarbon chain
scission and cross-linking at temperatures between
400°-450°C with negligible mass loss, followed by
decyclization of the triazine ring at 450°C that
liberates volatile cyanate-ester decomposition products.
The solid residue after pyrolysis increases with the
aromatic content of the polymer and incorporates about two
thirds of the nitrogen and oxygen present in the original
material. |
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| Title: |
Molar
Group Contributions to the Heat of Combustion |
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Summary: |
Experimental results for the gross
heat of combustion of over 140 commercial and
developmental polymers and small molecules of known
chemical structure were used to derive additive molar
group contributions. Predicted gross heats of combustion
were within 2.5 percent of the values measured by oxygen
bomb calorimetry. |
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| Title: |
Calculating Polymer Flammability From Molar Group
Contributions |
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Summary: |
Specific heat release rate is the
molecular-level fire response of a burning polymer. The
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) obtains the specific
heat release rate of milligram samples by analyzing the
oxygen consumed by complete combustion of the pyrolysis
gases during a linear heating program. Dividing the
specific heat release rate (W/g) by the rate of
temperature rise (K/s) gives a material fire parameter
with the units (J/g-K) and significance of a heat
(release) capacity. The heat release capacity appears to
be a true material property that is rooted in the chemical
structure of the polymer and is calculable from additive
molar group contributions. Hundreds of polymers of known
chemical composition have been tested to date, providing
over 40 different empirical molar group contributions to
the heat release capacity. Measured and calculated heat
release capacities for 80 polymers agree to within
±15%, suggesting a new capability for predicting
flammability from polymer chemical structure. |
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| Title: |
A
Fire-Resistant Epoxy |
|
Summary: |
The flammability, thermomechanical
properties, and fire response of the diglycidylether of
1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4- hydroxyphenyl)ethylene (DGEBC)
cured with several hardeners were examined and compared to
diglycidylether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA) systems. The DGEBC
and DGEBA were cured with (1) triethylenetetramine, (2)
methylenedianiline, (3) the parent phenol (BPC or BPA),
(4) catalytic amounts of (2-ethyl-4-methylimidazole)
(EMI-24), and (5) the dicyanate of bisphenol-C. Cured
samples were measured for strength, modulus, flame
resistance (limiting oxygen index (LOI), UL-94 V), flaming
heat release rate, and heat release capacity. The
mechanical properties of the DGEBC and DGEBA systems were
equivalent but the DGEBC systems exhibited superior flame
resistance and 50% lower heat release rate and heat
release capacity than the corresponding DGEBA system. The
DGEBC cured with methylenedianiline had an LOI of 30-31,
exhibited UL 94 V-0/5V behavior and easily passed the
Federal Aviation Administration heat release requirement
Federal Aviation Regulation 25.853 (a-1) as a single-ply
glass fabric lamina. |
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| Title: |
Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis of Combustion
Gases |
|
Summary: |
The Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) has developed a unique extractive Fourier Transform
Infrared (FTIR) system to analyze rapidly changing moist
fire gas concentrations as a function of time. The system
was designed to eliminate numerous errors generated by
state-of-the-art FTIR systems for fire gas analysis. In
addition, the path length, cell volume, sample flow rate,
and system temperature were optimized to provide a rapid
response and a sufficient dynamic range to detect gas
concentrations generated in the cone calorimeter. A
nonlinear classical least squares method was developed to
analyze the FTIR data and generate the concentration
histories and confidence limits of the 16 fire gases.
Results of the technique are presented for flaming and
nonflaming combustion tests of a mix of six common
plastics. |
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| Title: |
Ground
and Flight Testing of a Boeing 737 Center Wing Fuel Tank
Inerted With Nitrogen-Enriched Air |
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Summary: |
A series of aircraft flight and
ground tests were performed by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and the Boeing Company to evaluate
the effectiveness of ground-based inerting (GBI) as a
means of reducing the flammability of fuel tanks in the
commercial transport fleet. Boeing made available a model
737-700 for modification and testing. A nitrogen-enriched
air (NEA) distribution manifold, designed, built, and
installed by Boeing, allowed for deposit of the
ground-based NEA into the center wing tank (CWT). The fuel
tank was instrumented with gas sample tubing and
thermocouples to allow for a measurement of fuel tank
inerting and heating during the testing. The FAA developed
an in-flight gas-sampling system, integrated with eight
oxygen analyzers, to continuously monitor the ullage
oxygen concentration at eight different locations. Other
data such as fuel load, air speed, altitude, and similar
flight parameters were made available from the aircraft
data bus. A series of ten tests were performed (five
flight, five ground) under different ground and flight
conditions to demonstrate the ability of GBI to reduce
fuel tank flammability. |
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| Title: |
INERTED FUEL TANK OXYGEN CONCENTRATION REQUIRMENTS |
|
Summary: |
A literature search was conducted to
investigate the extent of experimental work and studies
that were performed for determining and evaluating safety
parameters of jet fuels in aircraft tanks when using
nitrogen as an inerting agent. The search revealed that
extensive laboratory studies have been made during the
past 30 years and that safety zones can be predicted over
a wide range of conditions and environments. |
|
| Title: |
Onboard Inert Gas Generation System/ Onboard Oxygen Gas
Generation System (OBIGGS/OBOGS) Study |
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| Title: |
Inerting of a Vented Aircraft Fuel Tank Test Article With
Nitrogen-Enriched Air |
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Summary: |
This report documents a series of
experiments designed to determine the quantity and purity
of nitrogen-enriched air (NEA) required to inert a vented
aircraft fuel tank. NEA, generated by a hollow fiber
membrane gas separation system, was used to inert a
laboratory fuel tank with a single vent on top designed to
simulate a transport category airplane fuel tank. The tank
ullage space could be heated as well as cooled and fuel
could be heated in the bottom of the fuel tank to provide
varying hydrocarbon concentrations within the ullage
space. |
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| Title: |
Development of Improved Flammability Criteria for Aircraft
Thermal Acoustic Insulation |
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Summary: |
A large number of small-,
intermediate-, and full-scale flame propagation tests
representative of an in-flight fire were conducted on
various thermal acoustic insulation blanket materials.
Results indicated that the current Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) vertical Bunsen burner test
requirement could not adequately discriminate between
poorly performing materials and materials that performed
well under realistic fire scenarios. A radiant panel
laboratory test was shown to be an effective method for
evaluating the in-flight fire resistance qualities of
thermal acoustic insulation. |
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| Title: |
Development of a Minimum Performance Standard for Aircraft
Cargo Compartment Gaseous Fire Suppression Systems |
|
Summary: |
This report documents the test
results of the testing conducted during the development of
a minimum performance standard for aircraft cargo
compartment gaseous fire suppression systems. It also
includes the final version of the standard. The
development work was performed in conjunction with the
International Halon Replacement Working Group. |
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| Title: |
Cold
Ambient Temperature Effects on Heated Fuel Tank Vapor
Concentrations |
|
Summary: |
Experiments were conducted within a
simulated aircraft center wing fuel tank (CWT) to
qualitatively analyze the effects of decreased ambient
temperatures, such as might occur at increased altitudes,
on the vapor concentrations found in a typical CWT ullage.
A small quantity of fuel in the CWT test article was
heated to 125°F for two hours, corresponding to a
temperature of approximately 10°F above the flashpoint
of the fuel. The tests were conducted at sea level (14.7
psia), however, the wall temperature of the tank was
cooled to a temperature corresponding to a given
altitude. |
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